Integrated circuit

In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material.
A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board.
This article is about monolithic integrated circuits.

Advances in integrated circuits
The integrated circuit from an Intel 8742, an
8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip.

Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors or "cores", which control everything from computers to cellular phones to digital microwave ovens. Digital memory chips and ASICs are examples of other families of integrated circuits that are important to the modern information society. While cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread across typically millions of production units the individual IC cost is minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the small size allows short traces which in turn allows low power logic (such as CMOS) to be used at fast switching speeds.

Microelectronics.

Change the paragraph to the Present Perfect Tense.

Microelectronics is a sub field of electronics. Microelectronics, as the

name suggests, __________ ______________ (is) related to the

study and manufacture of electronic components which _________

_____________ (are) very small (usually micron-scale or smaller, but

not always). These devices _________ ______________ (are) made

from semiconductors using a process known as photolithography.

Many components of normal electronic design ___________ (are)

_____________ available in microelectronic equivalent: transistors,

capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes and of course insulators and

conductors can all be found in microelectronic devices.

Digital integrated circuits (ICs) consist mostly of transistors. Analog

circuits commonly contain resistors and capacitors as well. Inductors

________ _____________ (are) used in some high frequency analog

circuits, but tend to occupy large chip area if used at low frequencies;

gyrators can replace them.

As techniques improve, the scale of microelectronic components

continues to decrease. At smaller scales, the relative impact of

intrinsic circuit properties such as interconnections may become more

significant. These ___________ _______________ (are) called

parasitic effects, and the goal of the microelectronics design engineer

is to find ways to compensate for or to minimize these effects, while

always delivering smaller, faster, and cheaper devices.

Flip-flop (electronics)

In digital circuits, a flip-flop is a kind of bistable multivibrator, an electronic circuit which has two stable states and thereby is capable of serving as one bit of memory. Today, the term flip-flop has come to generally denote non-transparent (clocked or edge-triggered) devices, while the simpler transparent ones are often referred to as latches.
A flip-flop is controlled by (usually) one or two control signals and/or a gate or clock signal. The output often includes the complement as well as the normal output. As flip-flops are implemented electronically, they require power and ground connections.
History
The first electronic flip-flop was invented in 1919 by William Eccles and F. W. Jordan. It was initially called the Eccles-Jordan trigger circuit and consisted of two active elements (radio-tubes). The name flip-flop was later derived from the sound produced on a speaker connected with one of the back coupled amplifiers output during the trigger process within the circuit.
Implementation
Flip-flops can be either simple (transparent) or clocked. Simple flip-flops can be built by two cross-coupled inverting elements – transistors, or NAND, or NOR-gates – perhaps augmented by some enable/disable (gating) mechanism. Clocked devices are specially designed for synchronous (time-discrete) systems and therefore one such device ignores its inputs except at the transition of a dedicated clock signal (known as clocking, pulsing, or strobing). This causes the flip-flop to either change or retain its output signal based upon the values of the input signals at the transition. Some flip-flops change output on the rising edge of the clock, others on the falling edge.
Clocked (non-transparent) flip-flops are typically implemented as master-slave devices where two basic flip-flops (plus some additional logic) collaborate to make it insensitive to spikes and noise between the short clock transitions; they nevertheless also often include asynchronous clear or set inputs which may be used to change the current output independent of the clock.

Answer the questions, based on the dialog above, and translate the answers.
Some answers will be found on the internet.

1. What is a flip-flop in digital circuits?

________________________________________

2. An electronic circuit which has two stable states what is it capable of serving?

________________________________________

3. How many types of multivibrator circuit are there?

________________________________________

4. What has the term flip-flop come to generally denote?

________________________________________

5. How are the simple transparet refered to?

________________________________________

6. How is a flip-flop is controlled by?

________________________________________

7. What does the output often includes?

________________________________________

8. Who invented the first electronic flip-flop and in what year?

________________________________________

9. How was it initially called? And what did it consist of?

________________________________________

10. How can flip-flops be?

________________________________________

11. How can simple flip-flops be built?

________________________________________

12. How do some flip-flops change their output?

________________________________________

13. How are clocked (non-transparent) flip-flops typically implemented?

________________________________________

14. Where two basic flip-flops (plus some additional logic) collaborate to make
what?
________________________________________

Passivity (engineering)

Passivity is a property of engineering systems, most commonly used in electronic engineering and control systems. A passive component, depending on field, may either refer to a component that consumes (but does not produce) energy, or to a component that is incapable of power gain. A component that is not passive is called an active component. An electronic circuit consisting entirely of passive components is called a passive circuit (and has the same properties as a passive component).

Thermodynamic passivity

In control systems and circuit network theory, a passive component or circuit is one that consumes energy, but does not produce energy. Under this methodology, voltage and current sources are considered active, while transistors, resistors, tunnel diodes, glow tubes, capacitors, and other dissipative and energy-neutral components are considered passive. For memoryless two-terminal elements, this means that the current-voltage characteristics lie in the first and third quadrant. Circuit designers will sometimes refer to this class of components as dissipative, or thermodynamically passive.
[edit] Incremental passivity
In circuit design, informally, passive components refer to ones that are not capable of power gain. Under this definition, passive components include capacitors, inductors, resistors, transformers, voltage sources, and current sources. They exclude devices like transistors, relays, glow tubes, tunnel diodes, and similar devices. Formally, for a memoryless two-terminal element, this means that the current-voltage characteristic is monotonically increasing. For this reason, control systems and circuit network theorists refer to these devices as locally passive, incrementally passive, increasing, monotone increasing, or monotonic. It is not clear how this definition would be formalized to multiport devices with memory -- as a practical matter, circuit designers use this term informally, so it may not be necessary to formalize it.

Answer the questions, based on the dialog above, and translate the answers.
Some answers will be found on the internet.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current-voltage_characteristic

1. Where is Passivity most commonly used?

____________________________________________

2. Depending on a field, what may a passive componet refer to?

____________________________________________

3. Where is a Passivity most commonly used?

____________________________________________

4. How is a componet that is not passive called?

____________________________________________

5. In control systems and circuits what is a network theory on a passive componet or circuit?

____________________________________________

6. Under this methodology, which sourses are considered active?

____________________________________________

7. Name four dissipative and energy-neutral components that are considered passive.

____________________________________________

8. What is a current–voltage characteristic?
____________________________________________

9. Why do Electrical engineers use these charts?

____________________________________________

10. How do these Engineers commonly refer to these characteristic charts?

____________________________________________

Valence electron

******************************************Helium atom model
In chemistry, valence electrons are the electrons contained in the outermost, or valence, electron shell of an atom. Valence electrons are important in determining how an element reacts chemically with other elements: The fewer valence electrons an atom holds, the less stable it becomes and the more likely it is to react.

The number of valence electrons.

The number of valence electrons of an element is determined by its periodic table group (vertical column) in which the sup element is categorized.
The number of electrons in an atom's outermost valence shell governs its bonding behavior. Therefore, elements with the same number of valence electrons are grouped together in the periodic table of the elements. As a general rule, the fewer electrons in an atom's valence shell, the more reactive it is. Group 1 alkali metals are therefore very reactive, with lithium, sodium, and potassium being the most reactive of all metals.

Every atom is much more stable, or less reactive, with a full valence shell. This can be achieved one of two ways: an atom can either share electrons with neighboring atoms, a covalent bond, or it can remove electrons from other atoms, an ionic bond. Another form of ionic bonding involves an atom giving some of its electrons to another atom; this also works because it can end up with a full valence by giving up its entire outer shell. By moving electrons, the two atoms become linked. This is known as chemical bonding and serves to build atoms into molecules or ionic compounds. Five major types of bonds exist:
ionic bonds
covalent bonds
coordinate covalent bonds (also called dative covalent bonds)
hydrogen bonds
metallic bonds
The valence electrons are also responsible for determining the electrical conductivity nature of an element.

Choose the correct answer to complete the paraghraph

1. In chemistry, valence electrons are:
________________________________________

2. Where are the electrons contained?
________________________________________

3. How is the number of valence electrons of an element determined?
________________________________________

4. The number of electrons in an atom's outer valence shell what does it govern?
________________________________________

5. The fewer electrons in an atom's valence shell, makes it more?

________________________________________

6. alkali metals are very reactive, but wich metals are the most?

________________________________________

7. How is every atom more stable and less reactive?

________________________________________

8. When an atom shares electrons it is called?

________________________________________

9. When an atom removes electrons from other aotms it is called?

________________________________________

10. When electrons are moved, two atoms become linked this is called?

_______________________________________

Insulators

An Insulator is a material that resists the flow of electric current. It is an object intended to support or separate electrical conductors without passing current through itself. An insulation material has atoms with tightly bonded valence electrons. The term electrical insulation has the same meaning as the term dielectric.
Some materials such as silicon dioxide or teflon are very good electrical insulators. A much larger class of materials, for example rubber-like polymers and most plastics are still "good enough" to insulate electrical wiring and cables even though they may have lower bulk resistivity. These materials can serve as practical and safe insulators for low to moderate voltages (hundreds, or even thousands, of volts).
Electrical insulation is the absence of electrical conduction. Electronic band theory (a branch of physics) predicts that a charge will flow whenever there are states available into which the electrons in a material can be excited. This allows them to gain energy and thereby move through the conductor (usually a metal). If no such states are available, the material is an insulator.
Most (though not all, see Mott insulator) insulators are characterized by having a large band gap. This occurs because the "valence" band containing the highest energy electrons is full, and a large energy gap separates this band from the next band above it. There is always some voltage (called the breakdown voltage) that will give the electrons enough energy to be excited into this band. Once this voltage is exceeded, the material ceases being an insulator, and charge will begin to pass through it. However, it is usually accompanied by physical or chemical changes that permanently degrade the material's insulating properties.
Materials which lack electron conduction must also lack other mobile charges as well. For example, if a liquid or gas contains ions, then the ions can be made to flow as an electric current, and the material is a conductor. Electrolytes and plasmas contain ions and will act as conductors whether or not electron flow is involved.

Answer the questions, based on the dialog above, and translate the answers.
Some answers will be found on the internet.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mott_insulator
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown_voltage
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte

1. What is an Insulator?
____________________________________

2. What kind of an object is it?
____________________________________

3. Where can one find tightly bonded valence electrons?
____________________________________

4. The term electrical insulation has the same meaning as?
____________________________________

5. Name some materials that are very good electrical insulators.
____________________________________

6. What is the absence of electrical conduction.
____________________________________

7. The Electronic band theory, is a branch of what?
____________________________________

8. How are most of the insulators characterized by?
____________________________________

9. What are Mott Insulators?
____________________________________

10. What is a break down voltage insulator?
____________________________________

11. What is a breakdown voltage (diode)?
____________________________________

12. What is an electrolyte?
____________________________________

Semiconductors.

A semiconductor is a solid material that has electrical conductivity in between that of a conductor and that of an insulator; it can vary over that wide range either permanently or dynamically.[1] Semiconductors are tremendously important in technology. Semiconductor devices, electronic components made of semiconductor materials, are essential in modern electrical devices. Examples range from computers to cellular phones to digital audio players. Silicon is used to create most semiconductors commercially, but dozens of other materials are used as well.
Semiconductors are very similar to insulators.
Semiconductors' intrinsic electrical properties are often permanently modified by introducing impurities by a process known as doping. Usually, it is sufficient to approximate that each impurity atom adds one electron or one "hole" that may flow freely. Upon the addition of a sufficiently large proportion of impurity dopants, semiconductors will conduct electricity nearly as well as metals. Depending on the kind of impurity, a doped region of semiconductor can have more electrons or holes, and is named N-type or P-type semiconductor material, respectively. Junctions between regions of N- and P-type semiconductors create electric fields, which cause electrons and holes to be available to move away from them, and this effect is critical to semiconductor device operation. Also, a density difference in the amount of impurities produces a small electric field in the region which is used to accelerate non-equilibrium electrons or holes.

Choose the correct answer, and then TRANSLATE.

1. A semiconductor is a solid material that has:
a) P-type semiconductor, b) electric fields, c) electrical conductivity

2. Semiconductors are tremendously important in:
a) mathematics b) technology, c) biology d) medicine

3. What is used primaraly to create semiconductors commercially.
a) metal b) rubber c) plastic d) silicon

4. Semiconductors are very similar to:
a) insulators b) electronic components c) digital audio players

5. Semiconductors' intrinsic electrical properties are often permanently modified by introducing impurities by a process known as:

a) dragging b) electronicaly c) doping d) devicing

6. Usually, it is sufficient to approximate that each impurity atom adds _____________________ that may flow freely.

a) one electron and one “mole” b) one electron or one "hole"
c) one electron and one “soul”

7. Upon the addition of a sufficiently large proportion of impurity dopants, semiconductors will conduct electricity nearly as well as:

a) metals b) glass c) rubbers d) dopants

8. Depending on the kind of impurity, a doped region of semiconductor can have more electrons or holes, and is named _________________________ material, respectively.

a) M-type or Q-type semiconductor b) N-type or P-type semiconductor
c) S-type or P-type semiconductor

9. Junctions between regions of N- and P-type semiconductors create:

a) metals b) electrons c) electric field d) semicunductors

10. Impurities produces a small electric field in the region which is used to accelerate non-equilibrium:
a) electrons or holes b) electronic components c) digital audio players

Diodes and triodes.

The English physicist John Ambrose Fleming worked as an engineering consultant for many technology firms of his day, including Edison Telephone; in 1904, as a result of experiments conducted on Edison Effect bulbs imported from the USA and while working as scientific adviser to the Marconi company, he developed a device he called an "oscillation valve" (because it passes current in only one direction) or kenotron, which can also be used as part of a radio wave detector. Later known as the Fleming valve and then the diode, it allowed electrical current to flow in only one direction, enabling the rectification of alternating current. Its operation is described in greater detail in the previous section.

In 1907 Lee De Forest placed a bent wire serving as a screen, later known as the "grid" electrode, between the filament and plate electrode. As the voltage applied to the grid was varied from negative to positive, the number of electrons flowing from the filament to the plate would vary accordingly. Thus the grid was said to electrostatically "control" the plate current. The resulting three-electrode device was therefore an excellent and very sensitive amplifier of voltages. DeForest called his invention the "Audion". In 1907, DeForest filed[2] for a three-electrode version of the Audion for use in radio communications. The device is now known as the triode.
De Forest's device was not strictly a vacuum tube, but clearly depended for its action on ionisation of the relatively high levels of gas remaining after evacuation. The De Forest company, in its Audion leaflets, warned against operation which might cause the vacuum to become too hard. The Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt significantly improved on the original triode design in 1914, while working on his sound-on-film process in Berlin, Germany. The first true vacuum triodes were the Pliotrons developed by Irving Langmuir at the General Electric research laboratory (Schenectady, New York) in 1915. Langmuir was one of the first scientists to realize that a harder vacuum would improve the amplifying behaviour of the triode. Pliotrons were closely followed by the French 'R' Type which was in widespread use by the allied military by 1916. These two types were the first true vacuum tubes. Historically, vacuum levels in production vacuum tubes typically ranged between 10 µPa to 10 nPa.
The non-linear operating characteristic of the triode caused early tube audio amplifiers to exhibit harmonic distortions at low volumes. This is not to be confused with the overdrive that tube amplifiers exhibit at high volume levels (known as the tube sound). To remedy the low volume distortion problem, engineers plotted curves of the applied grid voltage and resulting plate currents, and discovered that there was a range of relatively linear operation. In order to use this range, a negative voltage had to be applied to the grid to place the tube in the "middle" of the linear area with no signal applied. This was called the idle condition, and the plate current at this point the "idle current". Today this current would be called the quiescent or standing current. The controlling voltage was superimposed onto this fixed voltage, resulting in linear swings of plate current for both positive and negative swings of the input voltage. This concept was called grid bias.

Write the correct past perfect tense of the verbs in parenthesis, to complete the paraghraphs. Translate.

The English physicist John Ambrose Fleming ________ __________

(work) as an engineering consultant for many technology firms of his

day, including Edison Telephone; in 1904, as a result of experiments

he ________ __________ (conduct) on Edison Effect bulbs

he ________ __________ (import) from the USA and while he

________ __________ (be) working as a scientific adviser

to the Marconi company, he ________ __________

(develop) a device he ________ __________ (call) an "oscillation

valve" (because it passes current in only one direction) or kenotron,

which can also be used as part of a radio wave detector.

Later it ________ __________ (be) known as the Fleming valve and

then the diode, it ________ __________ (allow) electrical current

to flow in only one direction, enabling the rectification of alternating current.

Its operation ________ __________ __________ (be /describe) in greater detail in the

previous section.

Structure of a vacuum tube triode.

In electronics, a vacuum tube, electron tube (in North America), thermionic valve, or just valve (elsewhere, especially in Britain), is a device used to amplify, switch, otherwise modify, or create an electrical signal by controlling the movement of electrons in a low-pressure space, often tubular in form. Many devices called vacuum tubes are filled with low-pressure gas: these are so-called soft valves (or tubes); as distinct from the hard vacuum type, which have the internal gas pressure reduced as far as possible. Almost all depend on the thermal emission of electrons, hence thermionic.
Vacuum tubes were critical to the development of electronics technology, which drove the expansion and commercialization of radio broadcasting, television, radar, high fidelity sound reproduction, large telephone networks, modern types of digital computer, and industrial process control. Some of these applications pre-dated electronics, but it was electronics that made them widespread and practical; electronics have driven mechanical computers such as slide-rules to the point of obsolescence.
For most purposes, the vacuum tube has been replaced by solid-state semiconductor devices such as transistors and solid-state diodes: for most applications, they are smaller, more efficient, more reliable, and cheaper—either as discrete devices or as integrated circuits. However, tubes are still used in specialized applications: for engineering reasons, as in high power radio frequency transmitters; or for their aesthetic appeal, as in modern audio amplification. Cathode ray tubes are still used as display devices in television sets, video monitors, and oscilloscopes, although they are being replaced at various rates by LCDs and other flat-panel displays. A specialized form of the electron tube, the magnetron, is the source of microwave energy in microwave ovens and some radar systems.
A vacuum tube consists of arrangements of electrodes in a vacuum within an insulating, temperature-resistant envelope. Although the envelope is classically glass, power tubes often use ceramic and metal. The electrodes are attached to leads which pass through the envelope via an air tight seal. On most tubes, the leads are designed to plug into a tube socket for easy replacement.

Explanation:
The simplest vacuum tubes resemble incandescent light bulbs in that they have a filament sealed in a glass envelope which has been evacuated of all air. When hot, the filament releases electrons into the vacuum: a process called thermionic emission. The resulting negatively-charged cloud of electrons is called a space charge. These electrons will be drawn to a metal plate inside the envelope, if the plate (also called the anode) is positively charged relative to the filament (or cathode). The result is a flow of electrons from filament to plate. This cannot work in the reverse direction because the plate is not heated and does not emit electrons. This very simple example described can thus be seen to operate as a diode: a device that conducts current only in one direction. The vacuum tube diode conducts conventional current from plate (anode) to the filament (cathode); this is the opposite direction to the flow of electrons (called electron current).
***************************************************************
Answer the questions, based on the dialog above, and translate
the answers. Some answers will be found on the internet.

1. What is a vacuum tube, electron tube?
___________________________________

2. How is the electric signal created?
___________________________________

3. What are vavuum tubes filled with?
___________________________________

4. How are they so-called?
___________________________________

5. How is it distinct from the hard vacuum type?
___________________________________

6. What do all these devises depend on?
___________________________________

7. Vacuum tubes were critical to the development of electronics technology, because they drove the expansion and commercialization of what?
___________________________________

8. What has the vacuum tube been replaced by?
___________________________________

9. Where are Cathode ray tubes are still used as display devices?
___________________________________

10. A specialized form of the electron tube, the magnetron, is still the sourse of what?
___________________________________

11. What do the simplest vacuum tubes resemble?
___________________________________

12. What do they have that makes them resemble light bulbs?
___________________________________

13. What happends when it’s hot, and what does it realease, and how is the process called?
___________________________________

14. What is the resulting negatively-charged cloud of electrons is called?
___________________________________

History of development:

Write the correct present perfect tense of the verbs in parenthesis, to complete the paraghraphs.

The 19th century ______ __________ (saw) increasing research with evacuated tubes, such

as the Geissler and Crookes tubes. Scientists who ______ __________ (enperiment) with

such tubes and ______ __________ (include) Eugen Goldstein, Nikola Tesla, Johann Wilhelm

Hittorf, Thomas Edison, and many others.

Write the correct form of the verb “to be” and change the verbs in parentesis to the past tense to complete the paraghraphs.

These tubes ______ (be) mostly for __________ (specialize) scientific applications, or

______ (be) novelties, with the exception of the light bulb. The groundwork ______

(be) __________ (lay) by these scientists and inventors, however, this ______ (be) critical to

the development of vacuum tube technology.

Though the thermionic emission effect ________ (be) originally __________ (report) in 1873

by Frederick Guthrie, it is Thomas Edison's 1883 investigation of the "Edison Effect" that is more often mentioned.

History of the first Leyden jars.

Answer the questions, based on the internet.

1. What did the ancient Greeks know about rubbing pieces of amber?

___________________________________

2. What is the triboelectric effect,?

___________________________________

3. What is another name gine to the triboelectric effect,?

___________________________________

4. According to what does the polarity and strength of the charges produced differ?

___________________________________

5. What is a dielectric?

___________________________________

6. Who buit a crude friction generator around 1650?

___________________________________

7. What did it consist of?

___________________________________

8. Who found a method of storing large amounts of electric charge and in what year?

___________________________________

9. How was it done?

___________________________________

10. Why did the Kleistian jar go on to be known as the Leyden jar?

___________________________________

11. What does the word “endurance” mean in terms of electricity or electronics?

___________________________________


12. What is it’s formula?

___________________________________

Do You Know Your Electronics? (1)

Find out if you are an electronic whiz or if you completely know nothing at all?

Question 1: What is this? A...
Memory Card
D.A.T.
PSP
Flash Drive
CPU

Question 2: What does PSP stand for?
Park Sand Play
Play Station Playable
Play Station Portable
Portable Station Play
Pan Sand Pack

Question 3: What is this? A...
Ipod Shuffle
PSP
Ipod
RCA
Ipod Nano

Question 4: Which One of these is not a website?
braingle.com
explosm.net
Sandha.com
allthetests.com
Chacha.com

Question 5: Which one of these is not a Cable Company?
Comcast
Zenith
Fandango
Dish Network

Question 6: What is an RCA Cable?
2 Wires. = One red, One yellow,
right corn aerodynamics
A cable company called RCA
3 Wires. = One red, One White, One Yellow

Question 7: If there is a cable that points outward, it is called.
Male
Female
Nacka
Tiger
Wire

Question 8: If there is a wire that doesn't point out, what is it called?
Hard
Lion
Female
Nick
Male

Question 9: What is the name of a computer screen?
Computer
Screen
CPU
Monitor
S.T.N.

Question 10: What is the name of the person who created Microsoft?
Bill Gates
Bill Fameal
Chelsea Heggersten
Sam Sunrise
Benjamin Franklin

Capacitor

A capacitor is an electrical/electronic device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of conductors (called "plates"). The process of storing energy in the capacitor is known as "charging", and involves electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, building up on each plate.
Capacitors are often used in electric and electronic circuits as energy-storage devices. They can also be used to differentiate between high-frequency and low-frequency signals. This property makes them useful in electronic filters.
Capacitors are occasionally referred to as condensers. This is considered an antiquated term in English, but most other languages use an equivalent, like "Kondensator" in German, "Condensador" in Spanish, or "Kondensa" in Japanese.
In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania in Germany invented the first recorded capacitor: a glass jar with water inside as one plate was held on the hand as the other plate. A wire in the mouth of the bottle received charge from an electric machine, and released it as a spark.[1]

In the same year, Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek independently invented a very similar capacitor. It was named the Leyden jar, after the University of Leyden where van Musschenbroek worked. Daniel Gralath was the first to combine several jars in parallel into a "battery" to increase the total possible stored charge.
Benjamin Franklin investigated the Leyden jar, and proved that the charge was stored on the glass, not in the water as others had assumed. The earliest unit of capacitance was the 'jar', equivalent to about 1 nF.

Early capacitors were also known as condensers, a term that is still occasionally used today. It was coined by Alessandro Volta in 1782 (derived from the Italian condensatore), with reference to the device's ability to store a higher density of electric charge than a normal isolated conductor.
Most non-English European languages still use a word derived from "condensatore".

*********************************************************
Answer the questions, based on the dialog above, and translate the answers.

Some answers will be found on the internet.
_______________________________________

1. What is a capacitor?
_______________________________________

2. What is another name given to conductors?
_______________________________________

3. Give an example of the materials used in conductors?
_______________________________________

4. Why are the materias mentioned in # 3 used?
_______________________________________

5. How is the process of storing energy in the capacitor is known as?
_______________________________________

6. What does this process involve?
_______________________________________

7. What builds up on each plate as a resolt?
_______________________________________

8. How are capacitors often used in electric and electronic circuits?
_______________________________________

9. How can they also be used?
_______________________________________

10. Who invented the first recorded capacitor, in what month & year?
_______________________________________

11. Who invented the Leyden jar?
_______________________________________

12. Who investigated the Leyden jar, and proved that the charge was stored on the glass, not in the water as others had assumed?
_______________________________________

Identifying resistors

A resistor is a two-terminal electrical or electronic component that opposes an electric current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in accordance with Ohm's law: The electrical resistance is equal to the voltage drop across the resistor divided by the current through the resistor while the temperature remains the same. Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits.

Identifying resistors

Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance. Surface-mount resistors are marked numerically. Cases are usually brown, blue, or green, though other colors are occasionally found such as dark red or dark grey.
One can also use a multimeter or ohmmeter to test the values of a resistor.

Four-band axial resistors

Main article: Electronic color code
Four-band identification is the most commonly used color coding scheme on all resistors. It consists of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the resistor.
Each color corresponds to a certain number, shown in the chart.

The scheme is simple.

The first two numbers are the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the third is a multiplier, and the fourth is the tolerance of the value. Each color corresponds to a certain number, shown in the chart below. The tolerance for a 4-band resistor will be 1%, 5%, or 10%.

************************************************************

Answer the questions based on the paragraphs above, and translate.
Some answers can be found on the internet.

1. What is a resistor?
________________________________________

2. How does a resistor opose an electric current?
________________________________________

3. Where does a Ohm's law apply to?
________________________________________

4. What does the Ohm's law state?
________________________________________

5. Give the mathematical equation that describes this relationship is:
________________________________________

6. What does the “I” stand for?
________________________________________

7. What does the “V” stand for?
________________________________________

8. What does the “R” stand for?
________________________________________

9. What do Most axial resistors use indicate resistance.
________________________________________

10. How are Surface-mount resistors are marked?
________________________________________

11. What can also be used to test the values of a resistor?
________________________________________

12. Which is the is the most commonly used color coding scheme on all resistors?
________________________________________

13. Describe how the coding scheme is composed?
________________________________________

14. What is the the tolerance for a 4-band resistor?
________________________________________

Electronic circuits.

An electronic circuit is an electrical circuit that also contains active electronic devices such as transistors or vacuum tubes.

Electronic circuits can display highly complex behaviors, even though they are governed by the same laws as simple electrical circuits.

Electronic circuits can usually be categorized as analog, digital, or mixed-signal (a combination of analog and digital) electronic circuits.

Analog circuits

Analog electronic circuits are those in which electric signals vary continuously to correspond to the information being represented. Electronic equipment like voltage amplifiers, power amplifiers, tuning circuits, radios, and televisions are largely analog (with the exception of their control sections, which may be digital, especially in modern units).

The basic units of analog circuits are passive (resistors, capacitors, inductors) and active (independent power sources and dependent power sources). Components such as transistors may be represented by a model containing passive components and dependent sources. Another classification is to take impedance and independent sources and opamp as basic electronic components; this allows us to model frequency dependent negative resistors, gyrators, negative impedance converters, and dependent sources as secondary electronic components.

Digital circuits

In digital electronic circuits, electric signals take on discrete values to represent logical and numeric values that represent the information to be processed. Transistors are used primarily as switches to make logic gates. Examples of electronic equipment which use digital circuits include digital wristwatches, calculators and PDAs, and microprocessors.

Mixed-signal circuits

Mixed-signal or hybrid circuits contain elements of both analog and digital circuits. Examples include comparators, timers, PLLs, ADCs (analog-to-digital converters), and DACs (digital-to-analog converters).

3 Basic Parts

Energy source - converts nonelectric energy into energy, examples are batteries and generators.

Output device - uses electric energy to do work and a connection, examples are motor and lamp.

Connection - allows electric current to flow, examples are wire and cable.

Answer the questions based on the paragraphs above, and translate.

1. Why do Analog electronic circuits vary continuously?
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2. Name some electronic equipment that is largely “analog”.
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3. Are the control sections of the equipment you named above, also “analog”?
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4. How can electronic circuits be categorized?
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5. What is an electronic circuit?

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6. What does it also contain?

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Write the correct present perfect tense of the verbs in parenthesis, to complete the paraghraphs.

Digital circuits

In digital electronic circuits, electric signals ________ __________ (take) on discrete values to represent logical and numeric values that ________ __________ (represent) the information to be processed. Transistors ________ been __________ (use) primarily as switches to make logic gates. Examples of electronic equipment which ________ __________ (use) digital circuits include digital wristwatches, calculators and PDAs, and microprocessors.

Mixed-signal circuits

Mixed-signal or hybrid circuits ________ __________ (contain) elements of both analog and digital circuits. Examples include comparators, timers, PLLs, ADCs (analog-to-digital converters), and DACs (digital-to-analog converters).

3 Basic Parts

Energy source – ________ __________ (convert) nonelectric energy into energy, examples are batteries and generators.
Output device – ________ __________ (use) electric energy to do work and a connection, examples are motor and lamp.
Connection – ________ __________ (allow) electric current to flow, examples are wire and cable.

Some switches

A switch is a mechanical device used to connect and disconnect a circuit at will. Switches cover a wide range of types, from subminiature up to industrial plant switching megawatts of power on high voltage distribution lines.
In applications where multiple switching options are required (e.g., a telephone service), mechanical switches have long been replaced by electronic switching devices which can be automated and intelligently controlled.
The prototypical model is perhaps a mechanical device (for example a railroad switch) which can be disconnected from one course and connected to another.
The switch is referred to as a "gate" when abstracted to mathematical form. In the philosophy of logic, operational arguments are represented as logic gates. The use of electronic gates to function as a system of logical gates is the fundamental basis for the computer—i.e. a computer is a system of electronic switches which function as logical gates.

Answer the questions based on the paragraphs above,
and translate. Some answers can be found on the internet.

1. What is a switch?
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2. What is it used for?
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3. What is a “watt”?
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4. How many watts is a megawatt (MW)?
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5. How many watts is a kilowatt (kW)?
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6. If “watts” measure instantaneous power, then what do “watt-hours” mesure?
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7. Why have mechanical switches been replaced by electronic switching devices?
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8. Give an example were multiple switching options are required?
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9. What is a switch referred to in a mathematical form?
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10. Where does the word “logic” derive from?
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11. What does the word “logic” mean?
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12. In the philosophy of logic, how are operational arguments are represented?
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13. A logical operation is performed by a logic gate which in turn produces what?
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14. What is the fundamental basis for a computer?
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15. What is a computer?
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16. How do the electronic switches function in a computer?
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