Integrated circuit

In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material.
A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board.
This article is about monolithic integrated circuits.

Advances in integrated circuits
The integrated circuit from an Intel 8742, an
8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip.

Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors or "cores", which control everything from computers to cellular phones to digital microwave ovens. Digital memory chips and ASICs are examples of other families of integrated circuits that are important to the modern information society. While cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread across typically millions of production units the individual IC cost is minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the small size allows short traces which in turn allows low power logic (such as CMOS) to be used at fast switching speeds.

Microelectronics.

Change the paragraph to the Present Perfect Tense.

Microelectronics is a sub field of electronics. Microelectronics, as the

name suggests, __________ ______________ (is) related to the

study and manufacture of electronic components which _________

_____________ (are) very small (usually micron-scale or smaller, but

not always). These devices _________ ______________ (are) made

from semiconductors using a process known as photolithography.

Many components of normal electronic design ___________ (are)

_____________ available in microelectronic equivalent: transistors,

capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes and of course insulators and

conductors can all be found in microelectronic devices.

Digital integrated circuits (ICs) consist mostly of transistors. Analog

circuits commonly contain resistors and capacitors as well. Inductors

________ _____________ (are) used in some high frequency analog

circuits, but tend to occupy large chip area if used at low frequencies;

gyrators can replace them.

As techniques improve, the scale of microelectronic components

continues to decrease. At smaller scales, the relative impact of

intrinsic circuit properties such as interconnections may become more

significant. These ___________ _______________ (are) called

parasitic effects, and the goal of the microelectronics design engineer

is to find ways to compensate for or to minimize these effects, while

always delivering smaller, faster, and cheaper devices.

Flip-flop (electronics)

In digital circuits, a flip-flop is a kind of bistable multivibrator, an electronic circuit which has two stable states and thereby is capable of serving as one bit of memory. Today, the term flip-flop has come to generally denote non-transparent (clocked or edge-triggered) devices, while the simpler transparent ones are often referred to as latches.
A flip-flop is controlled by (usually) one or two control signals and/or a gate or clock signal. The output often includes the complement as well as the normal output. As flip-flops are implemented electronically, they require power and ground connections.
History
The first electronic flip-flop was invented in 1919 by William Eccles and F. W. Jordan. It was initially called the Eccles-Jordan trigger circuit and consisted of two active elements (radio-tubes). The name flip-flop was later derived from the sound produced on a speaker connected with one of the back coupled amplifiers output during the trigger process within the circuit.
Implementation
Flip-flops can be either simple (transparent) or clocked. Simple flip-flops can be built by two cross-coupled inverting elements – transistors, or NAND, or NOR-gates – perhaps augmented by some enable/disable (gating) mechanism. Clocked devices are specially designed for synchronous (time-discrete) systems and therefore one such device ignores its inputs except at the transition of a dedicated clock signal (known as clocking, pulsing, or strobing). This causes the flip-flop to either change or retain its output signal based upon the values of the input signals at the transition. Some flip-flops change output on the rising edge of the clock, others on the falling edge.
Clocked (non-transparent) flip-flops are typically implemented as master-slave devices where two basic flip-flops (plus some additional logic) collaborate to make it insensitive to spikes and noise between the short clock transitions; they nevertheless also often include asynchronous clear or set inputs which may be used to change the current output independent of the clock.

Answer the questions, based on the dialog above, and translate the answers.
Some answers will be found on the internet.

1. What is a flip-flop in digital circuits?

________________________________________

2. An electronic circuit which has two stable states what is it capable of serving?

________________________________________

3. How many types of multivibrator circuit are there?

________________________________________

4. What has the term flip-flop come to generally denote?

________________________________________

5. How are the simple transparet refered to?

________________________________________

6. How is a flip-flop is controlled by?

________________________________________

7. What does the output often includes?

________________________________________

8. Who invented the first electronic flip-flop and in what year?

________________________________________

9. How was it initially called? And what did it consist of?

________________________________________

10. How can flip-flops be?

________________________________________

11. How can simple flip-flops be built?

________________________________________

12. How do some flip-flops change their output?

________________________________________

13. How are clocked (non-transparent) flip-flops typically implemented?

________________________________________

14. Where two basic flip-flops (plus some additional logic) collaborate to make
what?
________________________________________

Passivity (engineering)

Passivity is a property of engineering systems, most commonly used in electronic engineering and control systems. A passive component, depending on field, may either refer to a component that consumes (but does not produce) energy, or to a component that is incapable of power gain. A component that is not passive is called an active component. An electronic circuit consisting entirely of passive components is called a passive circuit (and has the same properties as a passive component).

Thermodynamic passivity

In control systems and circuit network theory, a passive component or circuit is one that consumes energy, but does not produce energy. Under this methodology, voltage and current sources are considered active, while transistors, resistors, tunnel diodes, glow tubes, capacitors, and other dissipative and energy-neutral components are considered passive. For memoryless two-terminal elements, this means that the current-voltage characteristics lie in the first and third quadrant. Circuit designers will sometimes refer to this class of components as dissipative, or thermodynamically passive.
[edit] Incremental passivity
In circuit design, informally, passive components refer to ones that are not capable of power gain. Under this definition, passive components include capacitors, inductors, resistors, transformers, voltage sources, and current sources. They exclude devices like transistors, relays, glow tubes, tunnel diodes, and similar devices. Formally, for a memoryless two-terminal element, this means that the current-voltage characteristic is monotonically increasing. For this reason, control systems and circuit network theorists refer to these devices as locally passive, incrementally passive, increasing, monotone increasing, or monotonic. It is not clear how this definition would be formalized to multiport devices with memory -- as a practical matter, circuit designers use this term informally, so it may not be necessary to formalize it.

Answer the questions, based on the dialog above, and translate the answers.
Some answers will be found on the internet.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current-voltage_characteristic

1. Where is Passivity most commonly used?

____________________________________________

2. Depending on a field, what may a passive componet refer to?

____________________________________________

3. Where is a Passivity most commonly used?

____________________________________________

4. How is a componet that is not passive called?

____________________________________________

5. In control systems and circuits what is a network theory on a passive componet or circuit?

____________________________________________

6. Under this methodology, which sourses are considered active?

____________________________________________

7. Name four dissipative and energy-neutral components that are considered passive.

____________________________________________

8. What is a current–voltage characteristic?
____________________________________________

9. Why do Electrical engineers use these charts?

____________________________________________

10. How do these Engineers commonly refer to these characteristic charts?

____________________________________________

Valence electron

******************************************Helium atom model
In chemistry, valence electrons are the electrons contained in the outermost, or valence, electron shell of an atom. Valence electrons are important in determining how an element reacts chemically with other elements: The fewer valence electrons an atom holds, the less stable it becomes and the more likely it is to react.

The number of valence electrons.

The number of valence electrons of an element is determined by its periodic table group (vertical column) in which the sup element is categorized.
The number of electrons in an atom's outermost valence shell governs its bonding behavior. Therefore, elements with the same number of valence electrons are grouped together in the periodic table of the elements. As a general rule, the fewer electrons in an atom's valence shell, the more reactive it is. Group 1 alkali metals are therefore very reactive, with lithium, sodium, and potassium being the most reactive of all metals.

Every atom is much more stable, or less reactive, with a full valence shell. This can be achieved one of two ways: an atom can either share electrons with neighboring atoms, a covalent bond, or it can remove electrons from other atoms, an ionic bond. Another form of ionic bonding involves an atom giving some of its electrons to another atom; this also works because it can end up with a full valence by giving up its entire outer shell. By moving electrons, the two atoms become linked. This is known as chemical bonding and serves to build atoms into molecules or ionic compounds. Five major types of bonds exist:
ionic bonds
covalent bonds
coordinate covalent bonds (also called dative covalent bonds)
hydrogen bonds
metallic bonds
The valence electrons are also responsible for determining the electrical conductivity nature of an element.

Choose the correct answer to complete the paraghraph

1. In chemistry, valence electrons are:
________________________________________

2. Where are the electrons contained?
________________________________________

3. How is the number of valence electrons of an element determined?
________________________________________

4. The number of electrons in an atom's outer valence shell what does it govern?
________________________________________

5. The fewer electrons in an atom's valence shell, makes it more?

________________________________________

6. alkali metals are very reactive, but wich metals are the most?

________________________________________

7. How is every atom more stable and less reactive?

________________________________________

8. When an atom shares electrons it is called?

________________________________________

9. When an atom removes electrons from other aotms it is called?

________________________________________

10. When electrons are moved, two atoms become linked this is called?

_______________________________________

Insulators

An Insulator is a material that resists the flow of electric current. It is an object intended to support or separate electrical conductors without passing current through itself. An insulation material has atoms with tightly bonded valence electrons. The term electrical insulation has the same meaning as the term dielectric.
Some materials such as silicon dioxide or teflon are very good electrical insulators. A much larger class of materials, for example rubber-like polymers and most plastics are still "good enough" to insulate electrical wiring and cables even though they may have lower bulk resistivity. These materials can serve as practical and safe insulators for low to moderate voltages (hundreds, or even thousands, of volts).
Electrical insulation is the absence of electrical conduction. Electronic band theory (a branch of physics) predicts that a charge will flow whenever there are states available into which the electrons in a material can be excited. This allows them to gain energy and thereby move through the conductor (usually a metal). If no such states are available, the material is an insulator.
Most (though not all, see Mott insulator) insulators are characterized by having a large band gap. This occurs because the "valence" band containing the highest energy electrons is full, and a large energy gap separates this band from the next band above it. There is always some voltage (called the breakdown voltage) that will give the electrons enough energy to be excited into this band. Once this voltage is exceeded, the material ceases being an insulator, and charge will begin to pass through it. However, it is usually accompanied by physical or chemical changes that permanently degrade the material's insulating properties.
Materials which lack electron conduction must also lack other mobile charges as well. For example, if a liquid or gas contains ions, then the ions can be made to flow as an electric current, and the material is a conductor. Electrolytes and plasmas contain ions and will act as conductors whether or not electron flow is involved.

Answer the questions, based on the dialog above, and translate the answers.
Some answers will be found on the internet.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mott_insulator
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown_voltage
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte

1. What is an Insulator?
____________________________________

2. What kind of an object is it?
____________________________________

3. Where can one find tightly bonded valence electrons?
____________________________________

4. The term electrical insulation has the same meaning as?
____________________________________

5. Name some materials that are very good electrical insulators.
____________________________________

6. What is the absence of electrical conduction.
____________________________________

7. The Electronic band theory, is a branch of what?
____________________________________

8. How are most of the insulators characterized by?
____________________________________

9. What are Mott Insulators?
____________________________________

10. What is a break down voltage insulator?
____________________________________

11. What is a breakdown voltage (diode)?
____________________________________

12. What is an electrolyte?
____________________________________

Semiconductors.

A semiconductor is a solid material that has electrical conductivity in between that of a conductor and that of an insulator; it can vary over that wide range either permanently or dynamically.[1] Semiconductors are tremendously important in technology. Semiconductor devices, electronic components made of semiconductor materials, are essential in modern electrical devices. Examples range from computers to cellular phones to digital audio players. Silicon is used to create most semiconductors commercially, but dozens of other materials are used as well.
Semiconductors are very similar to insulators.
Semiconductors' intrinsic electrical properties are often permanently modified by introducing impurities by a process known as doping. Usually, it is sufficient to approximate that each impurity atom adds one electron or one "hole" that may flow freely. Upon the addition of a sufficiently large proportion of impurity dopants, semiconductors will conduct electricity nearly as well as metals. Depending on the kind of impurity, a doped region of semiconductor can have more electrons or holes, and is named N-type or P-type semiconductor material, respectively. Junctions between regions of N- and P-type semiconductors create electric fields, which cause electrons and holes to be available to move away from them, and this effect is critical to semiconductor device operation. Also, a density difference in the amount of impurities produces a small electric field in the region which is used to accelerate non-equilibrium electrons or holes.

Choose the correct answer, and then TRANSLATE.

1. A semiconductor is a solid material that has:
a) P-type semiconductor, b) electric fields, c) electrical conductivity

2. Semiconductors are tremendously important in:
a) mathematics b) technology, c) biology d) medicine

3. What is used primaraly to create semiconductors commercially.
a) metal b) rubber c) plastic d) silicon

4. Semiconductors are very similar to:
a) insulators b) electronic components c) digital audio players

5. Semiconductors' intrinsic electrical properties are often permanently modified by introducing impurities by a process known as:

a) dragging b) electronicaly c) doping d) devicing

6. Usually, it is sufficient to approximate that each impurity atom adds _____________________ that may flow freely.

a) one electron and one “mole” b) one electron or one "hole"
c) one electron and one “soul”

7. Upon the addition of a sufficiently large proportion of impurity dopants, semiconductors will conduct electricity nearly as well as:

a) metals b) glass c) rubbers d) dopants

8. Depending on the kind of impurity, a doped region of semiconductor can have more electrons or holes, and is named _________________________ material, respectively.

a) M-type or Q-type semiconductor b) N-type or P-type semiconductor
c) S-type or P-type semiconductor

9. Junctions between regions of N- and P-type semiconductors create:

a) metals b) electrons c) electric field d) semicunductors

10. Impurities produces a small electric field in the region which is used to accelerate non-equilibrium:
a) electrons or holes b) electronic components c) digital audio players