Diodes and triodes.

The English physicist John Ambrose Fleming worked as an engineering consultant for many technology firms of his day, including Edison Telephone; in 1904, as a result of experiments conducted on Edison Effect bulbs imported from the USA and while working as scientific adviser to the Marconi company, he developed a device he called an "oscillation valve" (because it passes current in only one direction) or kenotron, which can also be used as part of a radio wave detector. Later known as the Fleming valve and then the diode, it allowed electrical current to flow in only one direction, enabling the rectification of alternating current. Its operation is described in greater detail in the previous section.

In 1907 Lee De Forest placed a bent wire serving as a screen, later known as the "grid" electrode, between the filament and plate electrode. As the voltage applied to the grid was varied from negative to positive, the number of electrons flowing from the filament to the plate would vary accordingly. Thus the grid was said to electrostatically "control" the plate current. The resulting three-electrode device was therefore an excellent and very sensitive amplifier of voltages. DeForest called his invention the "Audion". In 1907, DeForest filed[2] for a three-electrode version of the Audion for use in radio communications. The device is now known as the triode.
De Forest's device was not strictly a vacuum tube, but clearly depended for its action on ionisation of the relatively high levels of gas remaining after evacuation. The De Forest company, in its Audion leaflets, warned against operation which might cause the vacuum to become too hard. The Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt significantly improved on the original triode design in 1914, while working on his sound-on-film process in Berlin, Germany. The first true vacuum triodes were the Pliotrons developed by Irving Langmuir at the General Electric research laboratory (Schenectady, New York) in 1915. Langmuir was one of the first scientists to realize that a harder vacuum would improve the amplifying behaviour of the triode. Pliotrons were closely followed by the French 'R' Type which was in widespread use by the allied military by 1916. These two types were the first true vacuum tubes. Historically, vacuum levels in production vacuum tubes typically ranged between 10 µPa to 10 nPa.
The non-linear operating characteristic of the triode caused early tube audio amplifiers to exhibit harmonic distortions at low volumes. This is not to be confused with the overdrive that tube amplifiers exhibit at high volume levels (known as the tube sound). To remedy the low volume distortion problem, engineers plotted curves of the applied grid voltage and resulting plate currents, and discovered that there was a range of relatively linear operation. In order to use this range, a negative voltage had to be applied to the grid to place the tube in the "middle" of the linear area with no signal applied. This was called the idle condition, and the plate current at this point the "idle current". Today this current would be called the quiescent or standing current. The controlling voltage was superimposed onto this fixed voltage, resulting in linear swings of plate current for both positive and negative swings of the input voltage. This concept was called grid bias.

Write the correct past perfect tense of the verbs in parenthesis, to complete the paraghraphs. Translate.

The English physicist John Ambrose Fleming ________ __________

(work) as an engineering consultant for many technology firms of his

day, including Edison Telephone; in 1904, as a result of experiments

he ________ __________ (conduct) on Edison Effect bulbs

he ________ __________ (import) from the USA and while he

________ __________ (be) working as a scientific adviser

to the Marconi company, he ________ __________

(develop) a device he ________ __________ (call) an "oscillation

valve" (because it passes current in only one direction) or kenotron,

which can also be used as part of a radio wave detector.

Later it ________ __________ (be) known as the Fleming valve and

then the diode, it ________ __________ (allow) electrical current

to flow in only one direction, enabling the rectification of alternating current.

Its operation ________ __________ __________ (be /describe) in greater detail in the

previous section.

Structure of a vacuum tube triode.

In electronics, a vacuum tube, electron tube (in North America), thermionic valve, or just valve (elsewhere, especially in Britain), is a device used to amplify, switch, otherwise modify, or create an electrical signal by controlling the movement of electrons in a low-pressure space, often tubular in form. Many devices called vacuum tubes are filled with low-pressure gas: these are so-called soft valves (or tubes); as distinct from the hard vacuum type, which have the internal gas pressure reduced as far as possible. Almost all depend on the thermal emission of electrons, hence thermionic.
Vacuum tubes were critical to the development of electronics technology, which drove the expansion and commercialization of radio broadcasting, television, radar, high fidelity sound reproduction, large telephone networks, modern types of digital computer, and industrial process control. Some of these applications pre-dated electronics, but it was electronics that made them widespread and practical; electronics have driven mechanical computers such as slide-rules to the point of obsolescence.
For most purposes, the vacuum tube has been replaced by solid-state semiconductor devices such as transistors and solid-state diodes: for most applications, they are smaller, more efficient, more reliable, and cheaper—either as discrete devices or as integrated circuits. However, tubes are still used in specialized applications: for engineering reasons, as in high power radio frequency transmitters; or for their aesthetic appeal, as in modern audio amplification. Cathode ray tubes are still used as display devices in television sets, video monitors, and oscilloscopes, although they are being replaced at various rates by LCDs and other flat-panel displays. A specialized form of the electron tube, the magnetron, is the source of microwave energy in microwave ovens and some radar systems.
A vacuum tube consists of arrangements of electrodes in a vacuum within an insulating, temperature-resistant envelope. Although the envelope is classically glass, power tubes often use ceramic and metal. The electrodes are attached to leads which pass through the envelope via an air tight seal. On most tubes, the leads are designed to plug into a tube socket for easy replacement.

Explanation:
The simplest vacuum tubes resemble incandescent light bulbs in that they have a filament sealed in a glass envelope which has been evacuated of all air. When hot, the filament releases electrons into the vacuum: a process called thermionic emission. The resulting negatively-charged cloud of electrons is called a space charge. These electrons will be drawn to a metal plate inside the envelope, if the plate (also called the anode) is positively charged relative to the filament (or cathode). The result is a flow of electrons from filament to plate. This cannot work in the reverse direction because the plate is not heated and does not emit electrons. This very simple example described can thus be seen to operate as a diode: a device that conducts current only in one direction. The vacuum tube diode conducts conventional current from plate (anode) to the filament (cathode); this is the opposite direction to the flow of electrons (called electron current).
***************************************************************
Answer the questions, based on the dialog above, and translate
the answers. Some answers will be found on the internet.

1. What is a vacuum tube, electron tube?
___________________________________

2. How is the electric signal created?
___________________________________

3. What are vavuum tubes filled with?
___________________________________

4. How are they so-called?
___________________________________

5. How is it distinct from the hard vacuum type?
___________________________________

6. What do all these devises depend on?
___________________________________

7. Vacuum tubes were critical to the development of electronics technology, because they drove the expansion and commercialization of what?
___________________________________

8. What has the vacuum tube been replaced by?
___________________________________

9. Where are Cathode ray tubes are still used as display devices?
___________________________________

10. A specialized form of the electron tube, the magnetron, is still the sourse of what?
___________________________________

11. What do the simplest vacuum tubes resemble?
___________________________________

12. What do they have that makes them resemble light bulbs?
___________________________________

13. What happends when it’s hot, and what does it realease, and how is the process called?
___________________________________

14. What is the resulting negatively-charged cloud of electrons is called?
___________________________________

History of development:

Write the correct present perfect tense of the verbs in parenthesis, to complete the paraghraphs.

The 19th century ______ __________ (saw) increasing research with evacuated tubes, such

as the Geissler and Crookes tubes. Scientists who ______ __________ (enperiment) with

such tubes and ______ __________ (include) Eugen Goldstein, Nikola Tesla, Johann Wilhelm

Hittorf, Thomas Edison, and many others.

Write the correct form of the verb “to be” and change the verbs in parentesis to the past tense to complete the paraghraphs.

These tubes ______ (be) mostly for __________ (specialize) scientific applications, or

______ (be) novelties, with the exception of the light bulb. The groundwork ______

(be) __________ (lay) by these scientists and inventors, however, this ______ (be) critical to

the development of vacuum tube technology.

Though the thermionic emission effect ________ (be) originally __________ (report) in 1873

by Frederick Guthrie, it is Thomas Edison's 1883 investigation of the "Edison Effect" that is more often mentioned.

History of the first Leyden jars.

Answer the questions, based on the internet.

1. What did the ancient Greeks know about rubbing pieces of amber?

___________________________________

2. What is the triboelectric effect,?

___________________________________

3. What is another name gine to the triboelectric effect,?

___________________________________

4. According to what does the polarity and strength of the charges produced differ?

___________________________________

5. What is a dielectric?

___________________________________

6. Who buit a crude friction generator around 1650?

___________________________________

7. What did it consist of?

___________________________________

8. Who found a method of storing large amounts of electric charge and in what year?

___________________________________

9. How was it done?

___________________________________

10. Why did the Kleistian jar go on to be known as the Leyden jar?

___________________________________

11. What does the word “endurance” mean in terms of electricity or electronics?

___________________________________


12. What is it’s formula?

___________________________________

Do You Know Your Electronics? (1)

Find out if you are an electronic whiz or if you completely know nothing at all?

Question 1: What is this? A...
Memory Card
D.A.T.
PSP
Flash Drive
CPU

Question 2: What does PSP stand for?
Park Sand Play
Play Station Playable
Play Station Portable
Portable Station Play
Pan Sand Pack

Question 3: What is this? A...
Ipod Shuffle
PSP
Ipod
RCA
Ipod Nano

Question 4: Which One of these is not a website?
braingle.com
explosm.net
Sandha.com
allthetests.com
Chacha.com

Question 5: Which one of these is not a Cable Company?
Comcast
Zenith
Fandango
Dish Network

Question 6: What is an RCA Cable?
2 Wires. = One red, One yellow,
right corn aerodynamics
A cable company called RCA
3 Wires. = One red, One White, One Yellow

Question 7: If there is a cable that points outward, it is called.
Male
Female
Nacka
Tiger
Wire

Question 8: If there is a wire that doesn't point out, what is it called?
Hard
Lion
Female
Nick
Male

Question 9: What is the name of a computer screen?
Computer
Screen
CPU
Monitor
S.T.N.

Question 10: What is the name of the person who created Microsoft?
Bill Gates
Bill Fameal
Chelsea Heggersten
Sam Sunrise
Benjamin Franklin

Capacitor

A capacitor is an electrical/electronic device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of conductors (called "plates"). The process of storing energy in the capacitor is known as "charging", and involves electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, building up on each plate.
Capacitors are often used in electric and electronic circuits as energy-storage devices. They can also be used to differentiate between high-frequency and low-frequency signals. This property makes them useful in electronic filters.
Capacitors are occasionally referred to as condensers. This is considered an antiquated term in English, but most other languages use an equivalent, like "Kondensator" in German, "Condensador" in Spanish, or "Kondensa" in Japanese.
In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania in Germany invented the first recorded capacitor: a glass jar with water inside as one plate was held on the hand as the other plate. A wire in the mouth of the bottle received charge from an electric machine, and released it as a spark.[1]

In the same year, Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek independently invented a very similar capacitor. It was named the Leyden jar, after the University of Leyden where van Musschenbroek worked. Daniel Gralath was the first to combine several jars in parallel into a "battery" to increase the total possible stored charge.
Benjamin Franklin investigated the Leyden jar, and proved that the charge was stored on the glass, not in the water as others had assumed. The earliest unit of capacitance was the 'jar', equivalent to about 1 nF.

Early capacitors were also known as condensers, a term that is still occasionally used today. It was coined by Alessandro Volta in 1782 (derived from the Italian condensatore), with reference to the device's ability to store a higher density of electric charge than a normal isolated conductor.
Most non-English European languages still use a word derived from "condensatore".

*********************************************************
Answer the questions, based on the dialog above, and translate the answers.

Some answers will be found on the internet.
_______________________________________

1. What is a capacitor?
_______________________________________

2. What is another name given to conductors?
_______________________________________

3. Give an example of the materials used in conductors?
_______________________________________

4. Why are the materias mentioned in # 3 used?
_______________________________________

5. How is the process of storing energy in the capacitor is known as?
_______________________________________

6. What does this process involve?
_______________________________________

7. What builds up on each plate as a resolt?
_______________________________________

8. How are capacitors often used in electric and electronic circuits?
_______________________________________

9. How can they also be used?
_______________________________________

10. Who invented the first recorded capacitor, in what month & year?
_______________________________________

11. Who invented the Leyden jar?
_______________________________________

12. Who investigated the Leyden jar, and proved that the charge was stored on the glass, not in the water as others had assumed?
_______________________________________

Identifying resistors

A resistor is a two-terminal electrical or electronic component that opposes an electric current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in accordance with Ohm's law: The electrical resistance is equal to the voltage drop across the resistor divided by the current through the resistor while the temperature remains the same. Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits.

Identifying resistors

Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance. Surface-mount resistors are marked numerically. Cases are usually brown, blue, or green, though other colors are occasionally found such as dark red or dark grey.
One can also use a multimeter or ohmmeter to test the values of a resistor.

Four-band axial resistors

Main article: Electronic color code
Four-band identification is the most commonly used color coding scheme on all resistors. It consists of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the resistor.
Each color corresponds to a certain number, shown in the chart.

The scheme is simple.

The first two numbers are the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the third is a multiplier, and the fourth is the tolerance of the value. Each color corresponds to a certain number, shown in the chart below. The tolerance for a 4-band resistor will be 1%, 5%, or 10%.

************************************************************

Answer the questions based on the paragraphs above, and translate.
Some answers can be found on the internet.

1. What is a resistor?
________________________________________

2. How does a resistor opose an electric current?
________________________________________

3. Where does a Ohm's law apply to?
________________________________________

4. What does the Ohm's law state?
________________________________________

5. Give the mathematical equation that describes this relationship is:
________________________________________

6. What does the “I” stand for?
________________________________________

7. What does the “V” stand for?
________________________________________

8. What does the “R” stand for?
________________________________________

9. What do Most axial resistors use indicate resistance.
________________________________________

10. How are Surface-mount resistors are marked?
________________________________________

11. What can also be used to test the values of a resistor?
________________________________________

12. Which is the is the most commonly used color coding scheme on all resistors?
________________________________________

13. Describe how the coding scheme is composed?
________________________________________

14. What is the the tolerance for a 4-band resistor?
________________________________________

Electronic circuits.

An electronic circuit is an electrical circuit that also contains active electronic devices such as transistors or vacuum tubes.

Electronic circuits can display highly complex behaviors, even though they are governed by the same laws as simple electrical circuits.

Electronic circuits can usually be categorized as analog, digital, or mixed-signal (a combination of analog and digital) electronic circuits.

Analog circuits

Analog electronic circuits are those in which electric signals vary continuously to correspond to the information being represented. Electronic equipment like voltage amplifiers, power amplifiers, tuning circuits, radios, and televisions are largely analog (with the exception of their control sections, which may be digital, especially in modern units).

The basic units of analog circuits are passive (resistors, capacitors, inductors) and active (independent power sources and dependent power sources). Components such as transistors may be represented by a model containing passive components and dependent sources. Another classification is to take impedance and independent sources and opamp as basic electronic components; this allows us to model frequency dependent negative resistors, gyrators, negative impedance converters, and dependent sources as secondary electronic components.

Digital circuits

In digital electronic circuits, electric signals take on discrete values to represent logical and numeric values that represent the information to be processed. Transistors are used primarily as switches to make logic gates. Examples of electronic equipment which use digital circuits include digital wristwatches, calculators and PDAs, and microprocessors.

Mixed-signal circuits

Mixed-signal or hybrid circuits contain elements of both analog and digital circuits. Examples include comparators, timers, PLLs, ADCs (analog-to-digital converters), and DACs (digital-to-analog converters).

3 Basic Parts

Energy source - converts nonelectric energy into energy, examples are batteries and generators.

Output device - uses electric energy to do work and a connection, examples are motor and lamp.

Connection - allows electric current to flow, examples are wire and cable.

Answer the questions based on the paragraphs above, and translate.

1. Why do Analog electronic circuits vary continuously?
________________________________________

2. Name some electronic equipment that is largely “analog”.
________________________________________

3. Are the control sections of the equipment you named above, also “analog”?
________________________________________

4. How can electronic circuits be categorized?
________________________________________

5. What is an electronic circuit?

________________________________________

6. What does it also contain?

________________________________________

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Write the correct present perfect tense of the verbs in parenthesis, to complete the paraghraphs.

Digital circuits

In digital electronic circuits, electric signals ________ __________ (take) on discrete values to represent logical and numeric values that ________ __________ (represent) the information to be processed. Transistors ________ been __________ (use) primarily as switches to make logic gates. Examples of electronic equipment which ________ __________ (use) digital circuits include digital wristwatches, calculators and PDAs, and microprocessors.

Mixed-signal circuits

Mixed-signal or hybrid circuits ________ __________ (contain) elements of both analog and digital circuits. Examples include comparators, timers, PLLs, ADCs (analog-to-digital converters), and DACs (digital-to-analog converters).

3 Basic Parts

Energy source – ________ __________ (convert) nonelectric energy into energy, examples are batteries and generators.
Output device – ________ __________ (use) electric energy to do work and a connection, examples are motor and lamp.
Connection – ________ __________ (allow) electric current to flow, examples are wire and cable.

Some switches

A switch is a mechanical device used to connect and disconnect a circuit at will. Switches cover a wide range of types, from subminiature up to industrial plant switching megawatts of power on high voltage distribution lines.
In applications where multiple switching options are required (e.g., a telephone service), mechanical switches have long been replaced by electronic switching devices which can be automated and intelligently controlled.
The prototypical model is perhaps a mechanical device (for example a railroad switch) which can be disconnected from one course and connected to another.
The switch is referred to as a "gate" when abstracted to mathematical form. In the philosophy of logic, operational arguments are represented as logic gates. The use of electronic gates to function as a system of logical gates is the fundamental basis for the computer—i.e. a computer is a system of electronic switches which function as logical gates.

Answer the questions based on the paragraphs above,
and translate. Some answers can be found on the internet.

1. What is a switch?
____________________________________

2. What is it used for?
____________________________________

3. What is a “watt”?
____________________________________

4. How many watts is a megawatt (MW)?
____________________________________

5. How many watts is a kilowatt (kW)?
____________________________________

6. If “watts” measure instantaneous power, then what do “watt-hours” mesure?
____________________________________
7. Why have mechanical switches been replaced by electronic switching devices?
____________________________________

8. Give an example were multiple switching options are required?
____________________________________

9. What is a switch referred to in a mathematical form?
____________________________________

10. Where does the word “logic” derive from?
____________________________________

11. What does the word “logic” mean?
____________________________________

12. In the philosophy of logic, how are operational arguments are represented?
____________________________________

13. A logical operation is performed by a logic gate which in turn produces what?
____________________________________

14. What is the fundamental basis for a computer?
____________________________________

15. What is a computer?
____________________________________

16. How do the electronic switches function in a computer?
____________________________________

Analog circuits

Hitachi J100 adjustable frequency drive chassis.

Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a 'circuit' can be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of components.
Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators.
Some analog circuitry these days may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve upon the basic performance of the circuit. This type of circuit is usually called "mixed signal."
Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but puts out only one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled switch having essentially two levels of output.

Digital circuits

Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits. In most cases the number of different states of a node is two, represented by two voltage levels labeled "Low"(0) and "High"(1). Often "Low" will be near zero volts and "High" will be at a higher level depending on the supply voltage in use.
Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control industrial processes) are constructed of digital circuits. Digital Signal Processors are another example.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

Answer the questions based on the above paragraphs & TRANSLATE.

1. What type of voltage do analog circuits use?

_________________________________

2. How can one define a circuit'?

_________________________________

3. What other name is given to analog circuits?

_________________________________

4. Give some examples of some non-linear effects used in analog circuits?

_________________________________

5. What is a "mixed signal."?

_________________________________

6. Why is it difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits?

_________________________________

7. What takes in a continuous range of voltage but puts out only one of two levels?

_________________________________

8. What kind of characteristics can an overdriven transistor amplifier take?

_________________________________

History of electronic engineering

The modern discipline of electronic engineering was to a large extent born out of radio and television development and from the large amount of Second World War development of defense systems and weapons. In the interwar years, the subject was known as radio engineering and it was only in the late 1950s that the term electronic engineering started to emerge. In the UK, (United Kingdom) the subject of electronic engineering became distinct from electrical engineering as a university degree subject around 1960. Students of electronics and related subjects like radio and telecommunications before this time had to enroll in the electrical engineering department of the university as no university had departments of electronics. Electrical engineering was the nearest subject with which electronic engineering could be aligned, although the similarities in subjects covered (except mathematics and electromagnetism) lasted only for the first year of the three-year course.

Answer the questions, based on the dialog above, and translate.

1. Out of what was the modern discipline of electronic engineering born?
______________________________________
2. In the interwar years how was engineering known as? ______________________________________
3. When did the term electronic engineering start to emerge? ______________________________________
4. In what country did electronic engineering become a degree
subject in the University and in what year? _________________
5. What countries belong to the United Kingdom (U.K.)? ______________________________________
6. Students of electronics and related subjects like radio and
telecommunications before 1960 had to enroll in what career? ______________________________________

Change the paragraph to the Past Perfect Tense, and TRANSLATE.

e.g. = In 1893 Nikola Tesla had made the first public...

Early electronics

In 1893, Nikola Tesla made the first public demonstration of radio communication. Addressing the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia and the National Electric Light Association, he described and demonstrated in detail the principles of radio communication. In 1896, Guglielmo Marconi went on to develop a practical and widely used radio system. In 1904, John Ambrose Fleming , the first professor of electrical Engineering at University College London, invented the first radio tube, the diode. One year later, in 1906, Robert von Lieben and Lee De Forest independently developed the amplifier tube, called the triode.

Translate the paragraph below to Spanish.

Electronics is often considered to have begun when Lee De Forest invented the vacuum tube in 1907 . Within 10 years, his device was used in radio transmitters and receivers as well as systems for long distance telephone calls. Vacuum tubes remained the preferred amplifying device for 40 years, until researchers working for William Shockley at Bell Labs invented the transistor in 1947 .

********************************************************************

In the following years, transistors made small portable radios, or transistor radios, possible as well as allowing more powerful mainframe computers to be built. Transistors were smaller and required lower voltages than vacuum tubes to work.
In the interwar years the subject of electronics was dominated by the worldwide interest in radio and to some extent telephone and telegraph communications. The terms 'wireless' and 'radio' were then used to refer anything electronic. There were indeed few non-military applications of electronics beyond radio at that time until the advent of television. The subject was not even offered as a separate university degree subject until about 1960.
Prior to the second world war, the subject was commonly known as 'radio engineering' and basically was restricted to aspects of communications and RADAR, commercial radio and early television. At this time, study of radio engineering at universities could only be undertaken as part of a physics degree. Later, in post war years, as consumer devices began to be developed, the field broadened to include modern TV, audio systems, Hi-Fi and latterly computers and microprocessors. In the mid to late 1950s, the term radio engineering gradually gave way to the name electronic engineering, which then became a stand alone university degree subject, usually taught alongside electrical engineering with which it had become associated due to some similarities.
Before the invention of the integrated circuit in 1959 , electronic circuits were constructed from discrete components that could be manipulated by hand. These non-integrated circuits consumed much space and power, were prone to failure and were limited in speed although they are still common in simple applications. By contrast, integrated circuits packed a large number — often millions — of tiny electrical components, mainly transistors, into a small chip around the size of a coin.

Answer the questions, based on the dialog above, and translate.

Some answers can be found on the internet.

1. What did, transistors make possible in the following years?
__________________________________________

2. What did transistors also allow to be built?
__________________________________________

3. What did transistors require?
__________________________________________

4. What two words were used were then used to refer anything electronic?
__________________________________________

5. Prior to the second world war, how was electronics commonly known as?__________________________________________

6. Basically what was it restricted to?__________________________

7. How could the study of radio engineering at universities be undertaken?__________________________________________

8. What consumer devices began to be developed in post war years?__________________________________________

9. When did the term radio engineering gradually give way to the

name electronic engineering?
__________________________________________

10. What happened to electronic engineering at Universities?__________________________________________

11. Then electronic engineering at Universities were usually

taught alongside what other degree?

__________________________________________

12. In what year was the integrated circuit invented?__________________________________________

13. In electronics, how is an integrated circuit also known as?__________________________________________

14. Give the name some integrated circuits.

__________________________________________

15. What does an integrated circuit mainly consist of?__________________________________________

16. The transistors packed in integrated circuits could be the size of what?__________________________________________

What is Electronics?

Electronics is the study of the flow of charge through various materials and devices such as semiconductors, resistors, inductors, capacitors, nano-structures and vacuum tubes. Although considered to be a theoretical branch of physics, the design and construction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems is an essential technique in the fields of electronic engineering and computer engineering.
The study of new semiconductor devices and surrounding technology is sometimes considered a branch of physics.

Overview of electronic systems and circuits.

Electronic systems are used to perform a wide variety of tasks. The main uses of electronic circuits are:
The controlling and processing of data.
The conversion to/from and distribution of electric power.
Both these applications involve the creation and/or detection of electromagnetic fields and electric currents. While electrical energy had been used for some time prior to the late 19th century to transmit data over telegraph and telephone lines, development in electronics grew exponentially after the advent of radio.
One way of looking at an electronic system is to divide it into 3 parts:
Inputs – Electronic or mechanical sensors (or transducers). These devices take signals/information from external sources in the physical world (such as antennas or technology networks) and convert those signals/information into current/voltage or digital (high/low) signals within the system.
Signal processors – These circuits serve to manipulate, interpret and transform inputted signals in order to make them useful for a desired application. Recently, complex signal processing has been accomplished with the use of Digital Signal Processors.
Outputs – Actuators or other devices (such as transducers) that transform current/voltage signals back into useful physical form (e.g., by accomplishing a physical task such as rotating an electric motor).

VOCABULARIO
1. flow = flujo ********************** 13. focus = enfocar
2. charge = carga ******************* 14. data = datos
3. Semiconductor= semiconductor*** 15. conversion= conversión
4. resistors = resistencia*************16. electromagnetic = electromagnético
5. inductors = inductor/bobina********17. field = campo
6. vacuum = vació ******************18. currents = corriente
7. tubes = tubos ********************19. prior = anterior
8. physics = física ******************20. inputs = energía absorbida
9. circuits = circuitos ***************21. outputs = energía de salida
10. devices = dispositivo/artefacto ***22. source = fuente
11. processors = prosesores *********23. actuator = actuador
12. network = red******************24. transducers = transductor

READING COMPREHENSION

Answer the questions based on the dialog above, and then TRANSLATE.

1. What is electronics? ______________________

2. Give 6 examples of the various materials:

____________________, _________________
____________________, _________________
____________________, _________________

3. What is electronics considered? _______________
______________________________________

4. In what fields are the electronic circuits an essential techniques?
_____________________________________

5. What branch studies new semiconductor devices and

surrounding technology?
_____________________________________

6. What two applications involve the creation or detection of

electromagnetic fields and electric currents?

___________________________________

7. After what event did “electronics” really begin to grow?

___________________________________

8. What are “Inputs”? ____________________

9. Where do the devices mentioned above take signals from? _____________

10. Can you name some examples of those sources? ____________________

11. And what are those sources converted into? _______________________

12. What do “Signal processors” serve for? ___________________________

13. What has been accomplished with the use of “Digital Signal Processors”?

__________________________________________________

14. What are “Outputs”? _______________________________

15. What kind of task can “outputs” accomplish? _______________________

IDIOMATIC PAIRS 3

He reunido aquí una lista de las expresiones idiomáticas más comunes en que se utilizan dos palabras unidas por "and".

1. by and large = in general.
I guess the team played quite well, by and large.
2. far and wide = everywhere.
She tried far and wide to find the keys but she couldn't. She had to take a taxi instead.
3. first and foremost = most important.
First and foremost, I would like to thank you all for this welcome.
4. forgive and forget = forget enmity.
Let's be friends again, I'm sorry for what I've done, but you have to forgive and forget.
5. free and easy = relaxed, friendly.
She knew that life wouldn't be so free and easy at work.
6. hit and miss = random.
I don't know how to operate this machine, it's just a question of hit and miss for me!
7. live and learn = become wiser.
You trusted her and she deceived you. You live and learn, so don't get fooled again.
8. in and out = entering and leaving a place.
The boss has been in and out all day, to see if the employees were working.
9. loud and clear = very clearly.
Even though he was 400km away, I could hear him loud and clear on the telephone line.
10. now and again = occasionally.
They like to go to a concert now and again.
11. on and off = not all the time, at irregular intervals.
It's been raining on and off all day, I hate this kind of weather.
12. over and out = message used to end a radio communication.
Understood. Over and out.
13. sink or swim = be successful or fail.
This a very difficult job, you have to be careful. It's really sink or swim.
14. up and about = in good health.
After the accident, he recovered very well, he's now up and about.
15. wait and see = wait patiently.
We don't know if this government will be able to put his plans into practice. We have to wait and see.

Exercise Choose the right answer.

1. People came from.....to see this concert.
in and out / far and wide / up and about

2. We got your message.....
loud and clear / now and again / over and out.

3. I guess we'll just.....how things develop.
sink or swim / live and learn / wait and see

4. It's good to see you.....again!
sink or swim / on and off / up and about

5. - First and foremost / By and large / In and out / the new arrangements have worked well so far.

6. The guide won't help you much, you are really left to.....
wait and see / hit and miss / sink or swim.

7. We see our in-laws.....
in and out / now and again / over and out.

8. What if we stop arguing? Let's.....
live and learn / forgive and forget / hit and miss.

IDIOMATIC PAIRS 2

He reunido aquí una lista de las expresiones idiomáticas más comunes en que se utilizan dos palabras unidas por "and".

1. bag and baggage = with all your possessions.
Mary got tired of living with her boyfriend so she decided to move, bag and baggage.
2. bits and pieces = small things.
I didn't hear everything he said, just some bits and pieces.
3. body and soul = physical and mental energy.
Jim loves learning a new language, he puts body and soul into it.
4. bread and butter = way of earning money to live.
Thomas doesn't have much money, he earns his bread and butter as a teacher.
5. give and take = compromise.
We can reach an agreement with a bit of give and take from both sides.
6. hustle and bustle = hurried activity.
I don't like living in the city centre, it's all hustle and bustle.
7. ifs and buts = excuses.
No ifs and buts, just finish your homework and then you can go to play with the computer.
8. odds and ends = small things.
I've almost finished this work, but there are still some odds and ends I have to deal with.
9. stuff and nonsense = foolish things.
Oh, no, he was not fired! That's all stuff and nonsense!
10. touch and go = close to success and failure at the same time.
After the accident, he's in a critical situation, the doctor said it's touch and go.
11. ups and downs = good and bad moments.
Don't panic, in a married couple there are always ups and downs.
12. wear and tear = deterioration.
Go change those clothes! Those can't stand any more wear and tear!

Exercise Choose the right answer.

1. In every relationship there's some.....
hustle and bustle / odds and ends / give and take.

2. Before I leave, let me get all my.....
body and soul / bits and pieces / bread and butter.

3. Working irregular hours is all.....of being a doctor.
touch and go / part and parcel / rack and ruin

4. Sheila doesn't have much on her desk, just a few.....
part and parcel / odds and ends / rack and ruin.

5. It was.....whether the ambulance would get there on time.
touch and go / ifs and buts / hustle and bustle

7. Before you leave, please check all your equipment for.....
ups and downs / wear and tear / stuff and nonsense.

8. They threw her out of the house.....
bread and butter / bag and baggage / body and soul.

IDIOMATIC PAIRS 1

He reunido aquí una lista de las expresiones idiomáticas más comunes en que se utilizan dos palabras unidas por "and".

1. alive and kicking = in good health and active.
I got a letter from Ronald, he's alive and kicking, working for an insurance company.
2. born and bred = born and educated.
Helen was born and bred in London, that's why she always carries an umbrella.
3. bright and early = very early in the morning.
We have to leave bright and early if we want to arrive there by 10.
4. fair and square = in a fair way.
We will pay for our part, let's make it fair and square.
5. on and on = without stopping.
I've been cleaning the house all morning, and I still have to go on and on to finish.
6. round and round = in circles.
I started to feel sick, everything was going round and round in my head.
7. safe and sound = unharmed.
After being away for five months, we arrived home safe and sound.
8. short and sweet = without unnecesary details.
A long letter of complaint would be annoying, so when you write it, try to make it short and sweet.
9. sick and tired = completely annoyed or tired of something/someone.
I'm sick and tired of hearing about your trip to Russia.
10. wine and dine = have a meal with wine at a restaurant.
For our anniversary I think we could wine and dine at that new restaurant that opened last week.

Exercise Choose the right answer.

1. Please, Andrew, shut up! I'm really.....of your excuses.
wine and dine / short and sweet / sick and tired

2. The boss promised all the employees to keep the meeting.....
short and sweet / round and round / rough and ready.

3. Ingrid decided to get up.....ready to start a new day.
safe and sound / sick and tired / bright and early

4. She stared at the washing machine, just looking at the clothes going.....
on and on / round and round / rough and ready.

5. The boy was still.....when they found him in the cave.
bright and early / alive and kicking / cut and dried.

7. Honestly, we should admit that they won the competition.....
rough and ready / bright and early / fair and square.

8. We will.....for our aniversary.
wine and dine / short and sweet /rough and ready

9. She went.....about the accident.
on and on / wine and dine / cut and dried

10. The lost girl was found.....in the forest.
safe and sound / on and on / bright and early

IDIOMS WITH NUMBERS 3 / 4 / 5

THREE
a three-piece suit = un traje de tres piezas
a three-point turn = mover el automóvil en un espacio reducido, hacia adelante y hacia atrás
the three Rs = habilidades básicas que se aprenden en la escuela: leer, escribir y aritmética (reading, writing and arithmetic)

FOUR
a four-letter word = mala palabra (la mayoría de las malas palabras en inglés tienen cuatro letras)
a four-poster bed = cama con cuatro postes que sostienen las cortinas
a four-wheel drive (4WD) = vehículo con tracción en las cuatro ruedas
on all fours = en cuatro patas, con las manos y las piernas
the fourth dimension = la cuarta dimensión (el tiempo)
the fourth estate = el cuarto poder (el periodismo que influye políticamente)

FIVE
a nine-to-five job = un trabajo rutinario, de oficina o comercio
five o'clock shadow = apariencia oscura en la cara de un hombre por el crecimiento de la barba desde que se afeitó por la mañana
to give somebody five = chocar las manos para felicitar a alguien
to take five = tomarse cinco minutos

Exercise Choose the right answer.

1. This parking space is really small, you will have to make.....
a three-piece suit / a four-wheel drive / a three-point turn.

2. I shaved this morning but now I can see.....
a five o'clock shadow / the fourth dimension / a three-piece suit.

3. They crossed the desert on...
a four-letter word / a four-poster bed / a four-wheel drive.

4. Sheila was down.....playing with the puppy.
in twos and threes / on all fours / a four poster bed

5. Kids learn.....watching TV.
a four-poster bed / four-letter words / a three-point turn

6. The teacher told the students that they had to learn.....
in twos and threes / the three Rs / the fourth dimension.

7. I love reading books about.....
a five o'clock shadow / the fourth dimension / in twos and threes.

IDIOMS WITH NUMBERS (one)

1. at one time = en el pasado, en un momento dado
2. back to square one = de nuevo en el comienzo
3. for one thing = principalmente
4. one and the same = exactamente el mismo
5. one fine day = algún día
6. one for the road = una para el camino (cuando se toma una copa más antes de salir)
7. one in a thousand = uno en mil
8. one in a million = uno en un millón
9. one of these days = uno día de estos, pronto
10. one too many = demasiado
11. the one and only = el único
12. to pull a fast one on somebody = engañar a alguien

Exercise Choose the right answer.

1. I can't stand it any longer, I think that.....I will move to a new house!
one too many / for one thing / one of these days

2. I don't like him. He's bad-tempered.....do you want more?
one in a million / for one thing /one too many.

3. OK. I think that we will have to go.....and try again.
back to square one / one too many / one and the same

4. One job less in this small company is really.....
one too many / the one and only / one for the road.

5. This beer is great, just let me get.....before I leave.
one with somebody / one for the road / one over the eight

6. The company was.....with the government on the plan to abandon free trade.
one in a million / at one /one and the same

7. I even tried.....and only magic trick I know, but the kids didn't like it.
one too many / one and the same / the one

8. The children realized that Santa Claus and Grandpa were.....
one over the eight / one too many / one and the same.